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Introduction (part B).
Like
the first settlers on this sacred spot, the Trojans also were of the
Aryan race; for I find among their remains enormous quantities of the
small articles of terra-cotta in the form of volcanoes and tops
(carrousels), with carvings of Aryan religious symbols.
Fig.6 (left): Terra-cotta Vase Cover (8m depth).
Fig.7 (right): Ornamented Ivory Tube, probably a Trojan Flute (8m depth).
I find in these
Trojan layers of débris an abundance of splendid pottery, and more
especially large and small cups with two handles, or with one from
below in the form of a crown (fig.6);[44] vases with rings on the sides and
with holes in the same direction in the lip, for hanging them up by
cords; all kinds of domestic utensils;also a beautifully ornamented
flute made of bone (fig.7), several pieces of other flutes, and a splendidly
ornamented piece of ivory, which is part of a lyre with only four
strings (fig.8).
Fig.8: Piece of Ivory, belonging to a Trojan lyre with four strings (depth: about 8 m).
The
building materials of the Trojans are of various kinds. With but few
exceptions, all the house-walls which I have uncovered are composed of
unburnt sun-dried bricks, which in the heat of the conflagration have
become a kind of really burnt bricks. But the royal palace and two
small buildings in the depths of the temple of{26} Athena, as well as
the Great Tower of Ilium, the Scæan Gate, and the great enclosing Wall,
are generally composed of unhewn stones joined with earth, the less
rough face of the stones being turned to the outside, so that the walls
have a tolerably smooth appearance.
I thought last year, upon
uncovering the Great Tower of Ilium, that it must have been at one time
higher than it now is, namely 6 meters or 20 feet; but its flat-built
top beside the Scæan Gate, and the benches (not ruins, as I formerly
thought) afterwards found upon it, prove that it can never have been
higher.[45] I would draw especial attention to the fact, that the
masonry of the Scæan Gate, upon being uncovered, looked as wonderfully
fresh as if it had been erected quite recently. It is quite certain
that it possessed strong wooden fortifications, and probably also a
wooden tower above the gateway; for otherwise it is inexplicable to me
how the entrance of the Gate can have been covered to the height of 10
feet by those red Trojan wood-ashes, and especially how it was that
there, far from the other buildings, the heat should have been so great
that even the thick slabs of stone have been destroyed by it.
Homer
speaks of Troy as having been destroyed by Hercules previous to the
Trojan war,[46] and it will ever remain an enigma to us whether this
information, which had been preserved by traditions down to his time,
really refers to the Ilium of Priam, or to the very ancient town of the
first settlers.{27}
As to the chronology of Troy, we have only
the general supposition of antiquity that the Trojan War occurred about
B.C. 1200, and Homer’s statement (Iliad, XX. 215-237) that Dardanus,
the first Trojan King, founded Dardania, which town I agree with Virgil
and Euripides in considering identical with Ilium, and that after him
it was governed by his son Erichthonius, and then by his grandson Tros,
by his great-grandson Ilus, and then by his son Laomedon, and by his
grandson Priam. Even if we allow every one of these six kings a long
reign of 33 years, we nevertheless scarcely carry the foundation of the
town beyond 1400 B.C., that is 700 years before the Greek colony.
The
site of Troy, which at the time of its foundation was 10 meters (about
33 feet) below the present surface, was only 7 meters (23 feet) below
it after its destruction, when Ilium was again rebuilt by another
people of Aryan origin; for, in the débris of this people, which
extends to a depth of from 7 to 4 meters (23 to 13 feet) below the
present surface, I find the same objects of terra-cotta with religious
symbols.
Fig.9: Ornamented Piece of Ivory belonging to a Trojan Seven-Stringed Lyre (7m depth).
The architecture of this people, as may be seen from
the many house-walls which I have uncovered, was always of small stones
joined with earth. Yet in two places in the depths of the temple of
Athena there is a wall of sun-dried bricks, which appears to belong to
this nation. Their houses were smaller, and less wood was employed in
their construction than in those of the Trojans; for, although the
ruins of houses lying one upon another show that several great
convulsions have taken place, still we find here far fewer charred
ruins than among those of the preceding people; nay, these layers of
débris have in the majority of cases a grey or black appearance, and
they contain millions of small mussel-shells, bones, fish-bones, and so
forth. It is curious that in these strata certain types of terra-cottas
are only found exactly at the same depth, and that, for instance, the
splendid black cups in the form of an hourglass, and with two large
handles, are confined to a depth of 6 meters (nearly 20 feet).
During
the first two years of my excavations, at the depth of from 4 to 7
meters (13 to 23 feet), I found scarcely any copper, and consequently I
believed that the metal was but rarely, if at all, known to this
people. This year, however, I found a number of copper nails in this
stratum, as well as some knives and battle-axes, together with moulds
of mica-schist for casting them, besides other weapons and
implements.[48] Yet copper must have been rare with them; for stone
implements, such as knives of silex, hammers and axes of diorite, and
so forth, are found by thousands.
This people also seem to have
disappeared simultaneously with the destruction of their town; for not
only do I find, at a depth of from 4 meters up to 2 meters{29} (13 to
6½ feet), many new types of terra-cotta vessels, but I no longer find
any remains of house-walls; nay, even single stones are scarcely ever
met with. At all events, directly after its destruction, the town was
rebuilt of wood by another tribe of the Aryan race; for the small
terra-cottas, adorned with Aryan religious symbols, although frequently
of new types, occur in numbers in these layers of débris.
Walls of
fortification are indeed met with in these depths, but they had been
built by the preceding people; as, for instance, the wall 19½ feet in
height, whose base is at a depth of 5 to 6½ feet above the treasure,
and which reached to within 1¼ ft. of the surface. This wooden Ilium
was, to all appearance, still less fortunate than the stone town of its
predecessors; for, as is proved by the numerous calcined layers of
débris, it was frequently desolated by fire. Whether these fires broke
out accidentally, or were kindled by the hands of enemies, must for
ever remain a riddle to us; but thus much is certain and evident from
the terra-cottas found at these depths, that the civilization of the
people, which had been but slight from the beginning, continued to
decrease during the perpetual misfortunes of their town.
I find, among
the ruins of this nation, lances, battle-axes, and implements, of pure
copper, and moulds for casting them; likewise a number of copper nails,
which, however—as in the case of the preceding peoples who have
inhabited this hill—are too long and thin to have been employed for
fastening wood together, and must in all probability have been used as
brooches: this seems to be proved by two nails of this kind on the top
of which I found rows of perforated beads of gold or electrum soldered
upon them. These two copper nails were, it is true, found immediately
below the surface, but they must in any case belong to the pre-Hellenic
time.
In the ruins of this people, at a depth of from 13 to 6½
feet, we also meet with stone implements, such as{30} hammers,
splendidly polished axes and battle-axes of diorite, but considerably
fewer than in the preceding stratum.
When the surface of the
hill was about 2 meters (6½ feet) lower than it is now, Ilium was built
by a Greek colony; and we have already endeavoured to prove that this
settlement must have been founded about the year 700 B.C. From that
time we find the remains of Hellenic house-walls of large hewn stones
joined without cement. From about 1 meter (3¼ feet) below the surface,
and upwards, there are also ruins of buildings, the stones of which are
joined with cement or lime.
We also meet with great numbers of copper
coins of Ilium of the time of the Roman empire, from Augustus to
Constans II. and Constantine II.; likewise older Ilian coins with the
image of Athena, and medals of Alexandria Troas; also with some coins
of Tenedos, Ophrynium and Sigeum, in some few cases at 3¼ feet, but
generally at less than 20 inches below the surface.
I once remarked
erroneously that Byzantine coins were also met with here near the
surface. But in my three years’ excavations I have not found a single
medal of a later date than Constans II. and Constantine II., except two
bad coins belonging to a Byzantine monastery, which may have been lost
by shepherds; and, as there is here not the remotest trace of Byzantine
masonry or of Byzantine pottery, it may be regarded as certain that the
Ilium of the Greek colony was destroyed towards the middle of the
fourth century after Christ, and that no village, much less a town, has
ever again been built upon its site.
The wall I mentioned in my memoir
of the 1st of March, 1873,[49] as consisting of Corinthian pillars
joined with cement, and which I believed to have belonged to the Middle
Ages, must be referred to the time of Constantine I. or to Constans
II., when the temple of Athena was destroyed by the pious zeal of the
first Christians.{31}
Of the walls and fortifications of the
Greek colony, almost the only portions that have been preserved are
those which were apparently built by Lysimachus. The lower and
prominent portion of the wall of the Tower belongs to more ancient
times, probably to the beginning of the Greek colony. Of great
political convulsions or catastrophes there seem now to have been but
few or none at all; for the accumulation of débris during the long
duration of the Greek colony, about 10½ centuries, amounts only to 2
meters (6½ feet).
Curiously enough, I find extremely little
metal in the débris of the Greek colony. Half-a-dozen scythe-shaped
knives, a double-edged axe, about two dozen nails, a cup, a few lances
and arrows, are pretty nearly all that I discovered. I have described
these objects in my memoirs as made of copper; but upon a more careful
examination they have been found to be bronze, and pure copper is no
longer met with in the Greek colony. The only objects of iron which I
found were a key of curious shape, and a few arrows and nails, close to
the surface.
From Homer we know that the Trojans also possessed iron,
as well as the metal which he calls ??a???, and which, even in
antiquity, was translated by ????? (steel). I am sure, however, that I
have not discovered even a trace of this metal, either among the Trojan
ruins or among those of any of the other nations which preceded the
Greek colony on the hill.[50] Yet articles of iron and steel may have
existed: I believe positively that they did exist: but they have
vanished without leaving a trace of their existence; for, as we know,
iron and steel become decomposed much more readily than copper.
Of tin,
which Homer so repeatedly mentions, I found of course no trace: this
metal, as we know, is corroded very rapidly even when lying in a dry
locality. Lead is found in the ruins of all the different{32} nations
which have inhabited the hill; but, among those which preceded the
Greek settlement, it is found principally in lumps of a hemispherical
form. I find it first in general use only in the Greek colony, where it
was employed as a means for uniting stones in building.
Plate III: Block of Triglyphs, with Metope of the Sun-God. From the Temple of Apollo in the Ruins of Greek Ilium.
To
judge from the area of the Ilium of the Greek colony,[51] it may have
possessed 100,000 inhabitants. It must in its best days have been very
rich, and the plastic art must have attained a high degree of
perfection here. Accordingly the site of the town, which is covered
with abundant relics of grand buildings, is strewn with fragments of
excellent sculptures, and the splendid block of triglyphs (plate III)—6½ feet in
length and 2 feet 10 inches in height, with a metopé which represents
Phœbus Apollo with the four horses of the Sun—is one of the most
glorious masterpieces that have been preserved from the time when Greek
art was in its zenith.
I discovered it in the depths of the temple of
Apollo, and it now adorns my garden at Athens. In describing this
treasure of art in my memoir of the 18th of June, 1872,[52] directly
after having discovered it, I made the remark that it must have
belonged to the time of Lysimachus, that is to say to about the year
306 B.C. I sent a plaster cast of it to the Museum of Casts in Munich,
and the Director of the Museum, Professor H. Brunn, who is certainly
one of the greatest authorities in the world respecting the plastic
works of antiquity, wrote me the following communication with regard to
it. “Even photographs furnish no adequate means of judging of plastic
works, and, in the present case, the cast alone has quite convinced me
that this work must be judged much more favourably than it has been in
the ‘Archäologische Zeitung.’
I do not venture to speak decidedly about
the triglyphs: the history of the Doric style after the time of the
Parthenon and the Propylæa is still utterly obscure: yet the straight
cutting of the channellings can certainly be referred to pre-Roman{33}
times. Of external criteria the halo of rays is the only one. According
to the investigations of Stephani,[53] this first occurs about the time
of Alexander the Great. For the special form of long and short rays, we
have the coins of Alexander I., of Epirus and of Ceos (Carthæa),
mentioned by Curtius. The most recent example that I have as yet found
is the Hades vase of Canosa, in our Museum, which belongs at latest to
the second century before Christ; hence the extreme termini for the
relief would be about the end of the fourth and the middle of the
second centuries.
The composition, as a work of art, shows the greatest
skill in solving one of the most difficult problems. For the team of
four horses ought not to move on the surface of the relief, but to
appear as if it came out of it in a half-turn. This has been attained
principally by making the right hinder thigh of the horse in the
foreground pressed back while the left foot steps forward, and moreover
this same horse is slightly foreshortened, and the surface of the thigh
lies deeper than the upper surface of the triglyphs, while, on the
other hand, the surfaces of the withers and of the neck are higher, and
the head, in conformity with the rules of Greek reliefs, is again
almost parallel with the base.
For this reason there is no indication
of a chariot, which has to be imagined as concealed by the foremost
horse. Moreover the position of the god is half turned forwards,
slightly following that of the head, and here also the arm is again
strongly turned inwards, but not so as to bring the position in
conflict with the rules of relief. If the encroachment of the head on
the upper border of the triglyph is considered inaccurate, I find in
this a very happy thought, which may remind us of the differently
conceived pediment of the Parthenon, where only the head and shoulders
of Helios rise out of the chariot still under the ocean. Helios here,
so to speak, bursts forth from the gates of day and sheds the light of
his glory over all.
These{34} are beauties peculiar only to Greek art
in the fulness of its power. The execution corresponds perfectly with
the excellence of the ideas, and thus I do not hesitate to place the
relief nearer to the commencement than to the end of the above limited
space of time. If, therefore, for other reasons, you believe it to
belong to the time of Lysimachus, I, from an archæological point of
view, have no objection to make against the supposition, but I rejoice
to see our treasure of monuments enriched by an original from those
times.”
Figs.10-12: Terra-cotta Covers of Vases, with the Owl’s
Face.
Fig.10 (left): From 3m depth. Fig.11 (center): From 2m depth. Fig.12 (right): From 7 m depth. Interesting
for depth and form.
Fig.13: Terra-cotta Vase, marked with an Aryan symbol (6m depth).
I
have already proved the relationship of the four different peoples, who
inhabited the site of Troy before the arrival of the Greek colony, by
the small terra-cottas in the form of volcanoes and tops which are met
with in quantities in all of the strata, and by the similarity of the
Aryan religious symbols engraved upon them. I prove this relationship
further, and above all, by the plastic representations of Athena, the
owl-faced tutelary goddess of Ilium, for this representation is common
to all the four nations which preceded the Greek colony.
Immediately
below the strata of the last, at a depth of 2 meters (6½ feet), I found
this owl’s face upon terra-cotta cups with a kind of helmet, which
likewise occur in all the succeeding layers of débris to a depth of 12
meters (39½ feet), and are of very frequent occurrence down to a depth
of 9 meters (29½ feet) (figs.10-12). These cups may, as my learned friend Émile
Burnouf thinks, have served only as lids to the vases which occur
contemporaneously with them, and which have two {35}up-raised wings,
and the breasts and abdomen of a woman, for they fit these vases
perfectly. I found likewise in all the layers of débris, from a depth
of 3 meters (nearly 10 feet) down to a depth of 10 meters (33 feet),
vases with owls’ faces, two upraised wings (not arms, as I formerly
thought), and the two large breasts and abdomen of a woman, and even,
at a depth of 6 meters (nearly 20 feet), a vase upon which the navel is
ornamented with a cross and four nails.
As far down as a depth of 14
meters (46 feet) I found the upper portion of a vase and the fragment
of a dish adorned with owls’ faces. Besides these, in all the layers of
débris, from a depth of 6½ feet downwards, as far as the primary soil,
there were found idols of very fine marble, of bone, of mica-schist, of
slate, and even of ordinary limestone, which are from ¼ of an inch to
7¼ inches in length, and from 0·6 of an inch to 4·8 inches in breadth.
Upon a great many of these there is an owl’s face, and some have even
long female hair engraved upon them; many also have a woman’s girdle.
As upon several of the idols, upon which I find the owl’s head, it is
not cut, but represented in a red or black colour, I presume that this
was once the case with all the idols which now possess no indications
of an owl, and that the colour upon these latter has been destroyed by
damp, during the course of thousands of years. Upon several idols of
marble and bone there are mere indications of wings on the sides. But I
also find the petrified vertebra of an antediluvian animal upon which
the Trojans have carved a large owl’s head. Further, at a depth of 3,
4, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 14 meters (10, 13, 20, 23, 26, 30 and 46 feet), I
found twelve idols of terra-cotta, and all, with only one exception,
have owls’ faces{36}{37} upon them; most of them also have the two
breasts of a woman, and upon
Figs.14-30: Rude Idols found in the various Strata (2 to 14 M.). No.
14 is of Ivory, with the same Decorations on both sides. Nos. 15, 16,
18, 20, 25, 26, 28, are of very fine Marble. No. 17 is of Green Slate.
Nos. 23, 24, 27 are of Terra-cotta: and No. 19 is a Piece of a Dish.
Fig.31: Remarkable Trojan Terra-cotta Vase, representing the Ilian Athena (9m depth).
These
owl-faced female figures, which occur so frequently upon the cups,
vases and idols, can represent but one goddess, and this goddess can be
none other than Athena, the tutelary goddess of Troy, all the more so
as Homer continually calls her “?e? ??a???p?? ?????;” for “??a???p??”
has been wrongly translated by the scholars of every century, and does
not signify “with bright and sparkling eyes,” but “with the face of an
owl.” The natural conclusion, in the first place, is that Homer
perfectly well knew that the owl-faced Athena was the tutelary goddess
of Troy; secondly, that the locality whose depths I have ransacked for
three years must be the spot “ubi Troja fuit;” and thirdly, that, in
the progress of civilization, Pallas Athena received a human face, and
her former owl’s head was transformed into her favourite bird, the
owl,{38} which as such is quite unknown to Homer. At a depth of from 4
to 9 meters (13 to 29½ feet), I also found some vases and cups with a
human face, but which have a good deal of the owl about them.
As
I did not find a trace of the owl’s face among the ruins of the Greek
colony, we may regard it as certain that it had already advanced beyond
the civilization of the old Ilians of whose town it took possession,
and that it brought the idea of the goddess with a human face with it
to Troy.
With regard to the often mentioned perforated
terra-cottas in the form of a top and the crater of a volcano, adorned
with Aryan religious symbols, it is possible that their original form
was that of a wheel, for they occur frequently in this shape upon the
primary rock at a depth of from 14 to 16 meters (46 to 52½ feet).[54]
In the upper layers of débris, these objects in the form of wheels are
indeed rare, but the representation of the wheel in motion, effected by
the incisions being more numerous, still occurs very frequently.[55] In
spite of all my searching and pondering, I have not yet succeeded in
arriving at an opinion as to what these extremely interesting objects
were used for. As has now become evident by the excavation of the
temple of Athena, it is only among the pre-Hellenic peoples that they
were adorned with Aryan symbols. In the Greek colony these occur but
rarely; they are of a different form, and they possess no trace of
carved decorations; instead of these, we find the much larger objects
of terra-cotta, round, and twice perforated, which occasionally bear
the mark of a kind of stamp.[56]
Through the kindness of my
friend Professor Giuseppe G. Bianconi in Bologna, I have received the
drawings of{39} ten similar round articles of terra-cotta in the form
of the top or volcano, which are preserved in the Museum of Modena, and
were found in the terramares of that district, in the lake-habitations
of the stone age. To my extreme astonishment, I found that six of them
possessed the same ornamental carvings which I found upon the articles
of the same form here in Troy. Three of them have a circle round the
central sun, a triple cross, which, as I have endeavoured minutely to
explain in my sixth memoir, was the symbol of the two pieces of wood of
our Aryan forefathers for producing the holy fire, and is an emblem of
the highest importance.
The fourth represents one of these machines for
producing fire with five ends, and Indian scholars may possibly find
that one of the staves represents the piece of wood called “pramantha,”
with which fire was generated by friction, and which the Greeks at a
later time transformed into their Prometheus, who, as they imagined,
stole fire from heaven. The fifth represents a somewhat different form
of the fire producer of our remote ancestors; and the sixth has twelve
circles round the central sun. Probably these are the twelve stations
of the sun which are so frequently mentioned in the Rigvêda, and which
are personified by the twelve Adityas, the sons of Adity (the
Indivisible or Infinite Space), and represent the twelve signs of the
Zodiac.
The same friend has also sent me drawings of eighteen
similar round terra-cottas found in the graves of the cemetery in
Villanova, and now in the Museum of Count Gozzadini in Bologna. As the
count found an “aes rude” in one of the graves, he thinks that the
cemetery, like it, belongs to the time of King Numa, that is, to about
700 years before Christ. G. de Mortillet,[57] however, ascribes a much
greater age to the cemetery. But, at all events, fifteen of the
eighteen drawings lying before{40} me have a modern appearance compared
with the ten in the Museum of Modena, and compared with my small
terra-cottas in the form of tops, volcanoes, and wheels, found in Troy;
for not only the decorations, but the forms also of the articles are
very much more elaborate. Only three of the eighteen articles show a
shape and decorations like those met with in Troy. All three have the
form of a top: the first has seven suns in a circle round the central
sun; the second has two crosses, one of which is formed by four stars,
the other by four lines. The third has five triangles and five stars in
the circle round the central point. The comparison of these eighteen
articles with those from Troy convinces me that Count Gozzadini is
right in ascribing no greater age to the cemetery of Villanova than 700
B.C.
But besides the articles ornamented with religious symbols,
we meet in Troy with thousands of terra-cottas of a similar, but in
most cases more lengthened form, with no decorations whatever; at a
depth of 3 metres (10 feet), they occur also in the shape of cones.[58]
Formerly, at a depth of 10 feet, I found similar pieces in blue or
green stone, which I have also recently met with frequently at a depth
of from 23 to 33 feet. Among the unembellished terra-cottas of this
description I find some, but scarcely more than 2 per cent., which show
signs of wear, and may have been used on spindles. The pieces adorned
with carvings, on the other hand, never show signs of any kind of wear,
and the symbols engraved upon them are filled with white clay so as to
make them more striking to the eye.[59] This white clay must have
disappeared{41} directly, if the pieces had been used on spindles or as
coins. They cannot have been worn as amulets, on account of their size
and weight: I am therefore forced to believe that they were employed as
offerings, or that they were worshipped as idols of the Sun, whose
image is seen in the centre.
Unfortunately, owing to the great
extent of my excavations, the hurry in which they were carried on, and
the hardness of the débris, by far the greater portion of the
terra-cotta vessels found by me in the depths of Ilium were brought out
more or less broken. But everything that could in any way be repaired I
have restored by means of shell-lac and gypsum, and in this state they
are represented in the drawings.[60] In all cases where I found a piece
broken off and wanting, I restored it according to the model of other
vessels of the same kind which I obtained in an unbroken condition; but
where such models were wanting, or where I had the slightest doubt, I
did not attempt to restore the articles.
Footnotes:
[44]
Dr. Schliemann has since pronounced these crown-shaped vessels to be
covers of vases; though they may, he thinks, have been used for cups as
well. One is seen placed on the splendid vase on p. 48.—{Ed}
[45] See Plan III., p. 306.
[46] Iliad, V. 640-642, where Tlepolemus boasts of his ancestor Hercules—
Ὅς ποτε δεῦρ’ ἐλθὼν ἕνεχ’ ἵππων Λαομέδοντος,
Ἓξ οἴῃς σὺν νηυσὶ καὶ ἀνδράσι παυροτέροισιν,
Ἰλίου ἐξαλάπαξε πόλιν, χήρωσε δ’ ἀγυιάς.
“With but six ships, and with a scanty band,
The horses by Laomedon withheld
Avenging, he o’erthrew this city, Troy,
And made her streets a desert.”
[47]
This most important key to the archæological evidence collected by Dr.
Schliemann has been preserved in the present translation. The depths
are given in meters for the reasons stated in the Preface.
[48] These objects resemble those from other strata, engraved in Chapter IV. and subsequently.
[49] Chapter XVI., p. 239; comp. Chap. XV., p. 230, XVII., p. 250, XIX., p. 272.
[50]
It will be seen, however, from the analysis of M. Damour, that traces
of iron (probably in the state of an ore) are found in one of the
sling-bullets discovered by Dr. Schliemann.—[Ed.]
[51] See Plan II. at the end of the volume.
[52] Chapter X.
[53] Nimbus und Strahlenkranz.
[54] See the Sections on the Plates of Whorls.
[55] For examples of this type see Nos. 337, 340, 341, &c.
[56] See the Illustrations to Chapter II., p. 65.
[57] ‘Le Signe de la Croix,’ pp. 88-89.
[58] See the Sections of Plain Whorls, Pl. XXI., Nos. 436-440.
[59]
This statement needs considerable qualification. The notes on M.
Burnouf’s drawings, supplied by Dr. Schliemann for this book,
frequently describe the decorated whorls as worn and rubbed, especially
on the under side and at the point, in some cases “by a circular
motion.” All this strongly favours the hypothesis of their use for
spindles.—[Ed.]
[60] These restorations are indicated in the engravings by light shading.
Continue to part C of Introduction.
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