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Archaeological Survey of Nubia (Bulletin 3). (Published in 1909 by the Egyptian Ministry of Finance, Survey Department, Cairo.)
Progress of Survey.
The
main problem presented to the Archaeological Survey of Nubia in its
second season remains the same—the recovery of all the archaeological
and somatological material and the reconstruction of the history of the
district. But the ground is no longer a terra incognita.
The great archaeological groups of the Shell al-Kalabsha stretch have
been marked out by last year's work with the characteristic types of
graves, burials, pottery, weapons, implements and ornaments belonging
to each. These periods are, as was shown in Bulletins 1 and 2, the
following:—
(1) The Predynastic Period—the Egyptian period par excellence, when
Nubia was occupied by the Egyptian race with the same culture as the
Egyptian of the same period in Egypt.
(2) The Early Dynastic Period—the second Egyptian period, when Nubia
was still occupied by the Egyptians, but hardly keeping pace with
Egyptian culture in Egypt. This is our A-group. [1]
(3) The Old Kingdom—the first Nubian period, characterised by pottery,
slates and ornaments, not found in the same period in Egypt, but
manifestly degenerated forms of the Early Dynastic Period. B-group.
(4) The Middle Kingdom—the second Nubian period, characterised by
pottery, amulets and ornaments, not found in Egypt except in the
cemeteries of Nubian settlements in Egypt (so-called "pangraves"). On
the other hand, some of the amulets, an occasional button-seal or
scarab-seal, some of the beads, the grave types and the burial-types
are not essentially different from the material (p.6) found in graves
of the Early Middle Empire by the Hearst Expedition at Naga ed Der.
C-group.
(5) The New Empire—the period of the revival of the Egyptian culture
and the fresh infusion of Egyptian blood. The period is characterised
by Egyptian types of graves, burials, pottery and funerary furniture
with a few extremely rare survivals of black-topped pottery (not
identical with the C-group black-topped).
(6) The Ptolemaic-Roman Period—not differing essentially except in race from the same period in Egypt. 300 BC-200 AD.
(7) The Byzantine Pagan-Period (X-group)—with characteristic un-Egyptian types of graves, burials and pottery. 200-600 AD.
(8) The Christian Period—not differing essentially except in race from the same period in Egypt. About 500-1100 AD.
(9) The Moslem Period. About 1100 AD to date.
The details of the problem consist, then, in tracing the continuation
of these groups southwards, noting changes in the character of the
material and any new elements which may be introduced. One of the
points of especial interest was that contained in the query expressed
at the end of Bulletin No.2: "Was Bab el Kalabsha the limit of Egyptian
culture in the predynastic period?" The work of this second season has
already (December 31, 1908) brought the answer to this query. The
ground for 30 kilometres south of Bab el Kalabsha is, as surmised in
Bulletin No.2, nearly barren of archaic material; but, at Gerf Husein,
there are abundant evidences of the predynastic and early dynastic
periods of Egyptian culture. The boundary lies still farther south, and
it is doubtful whether it will be reached at all during the present
Nubian Archaeological Survey, which it is not intended to extend beyond
Korosko, the limit of the territory to be affected by the new reservoir.
In general, it may be said of the material recovered between Koshtamna
and Taifa, that it is practically homogeneous in all periods with that
obtained between Bab el Kalabsha and Shellal. Some new types of pottery
have been found, especially in the X-group (see below), and some
additional material in regard to the New Empire period; but no new
archaeological groups are distinguishable, and no important changes can
be made in the historical conclusions based on last year's results.
Progress of the Field Work (p.7).
The field work of the Survey was resumed on October 1. Owing to the
unexpected height of the Nile flood, it was clear that there would be
no necessity for holding up the extra metres of water spoken of at the
beginning of Bulletin No.1. A week was spent getting the workmen
together, practically the same men as last year, reorganized into
working gangs, divided into two parties, and shipped off to Gennari and
Kalabsha respectively. Mr. Firth and myeelf sailed up to Kalabsha on
the dahabiyeh. arriving there on October 8. The Gennari gang was
instructed to clear another section of the Christian cemetery and to
search the wadis around Gennari and Taifa. The Kalabsha gang were put
to work searching for cemeteries around Kalabsha Temple and both banks
between Kalabsha Temple and Taifa.
An examination of the stone enclosure (the so-called "town") north of
Kalabsha Temple disclosed the fact that the whole of it had already
been excavated by sebbakhin to a level below the floor. The southern
and eastern part of the building rested on an ancient mud bank
(geological), while the northern and western part rested on the
sandstone stratum. The interior was filled with broken Roman, Coptic
and modern potsherds, and fragments of stone; but in many places the
underlying mud and sandstone strata were exposed, and in some parts the
sebakh holes had penetrated the mud to a considerable depth. The
hillside to the west of the enclosure was heaped with broken stone, the
debris left by sebakh-digging along the cliff. The decayed sandstone is
greatly used along this part of the river for spreading on the fields,
so that certain fields, when seen from above in the dry summer time,
have a distinct reddish tinge. After my departure, an examination of
debris in the enclosure and on the slope bore out fully these
conclusions. We confined ourselves, therefore, to tracing out the
walls; and Mr. Murray made a plan of them.
On October 11 I returned to Cairo, leaving Mr. C. M. Firth in charge of
the field work, and was engaged on the report of the first year's work
until December 12. Mr. Firth reported regularly the progress of the
cemeteries opened, and sent photographs of the graves, so that I was
able to follow closely the progress of the work. On December 12 I left
Cairo and arrived at the camp at Gerf Husein on the 16th (p.8). At that
time both gangs were at work on the west bank, one of them on Cemetery
76 at Gedekol, and the other at Cemeteries 72-74, which had just been
recorded. The following report is based on Mr. Firth's records. Up to
December 31, including those opened during my absence, the following
cemeteries were cleared:—
No.58. West bank. On two alluvial mounds near the northern village of
Gennari. Patch Nos. 1-20, Middle Empire (C-group). Patch Nos. 100-127,
intermediate period (late C-group and Early New Empire).
No.59. West bank. On a high mud bank in the khor north of Kalabsha Temple. Of the X-group (Byzantine).
No.60. East bank. In mud banks at Aqabaten. Roman.
No.61. East bank. In mud banks at Nogi-koleh. Roman.
No.62. East bank. In alluvial bank at Khor Bazil. Roman and Byzantine.
On the west bank opposite Hafir, in a mud mound, plundered Roman
mud-cut tombs. On the west bank opposite Haggi-Musa-kole, a few Roman
rock-cut tombs.
No.63. West bank. In mud banks about 1 kilometre north of Dendur
Temple, Byzantine (X-group). On the east bank, directly opposite, at
Abu-Asha, empty rock-cut tombs and circular pits, Roman and archaic (or
C-group).
No.64. West bank. In alluvial bank at Mettardul. Early 18th Dynasty.
No.65. East bank. In mud bank at Wadi Abyad. One unplundered grave. Early Dynastic.
No.66. West bank. In mud bank at Abu Regab, a plundered cemetery. One
18th Dynasty grave, some Roman chamber-graves and some Christian graves.
No.67. West bank. In mud bank, south side of khor, south of Dughesh, two 18th Dynasty graves.
No.68. East bank. In mud bank at Muallaqa. Middle Empire (C-group) and New Empire.
No.69. East bank. On alluvial bank, on the northern side of Khor Nugdy. Middle Empire (C-group) and New Empire.
No.70. West bank. Patch 1-23, in mud (?) between Farragullah and
Musa-kole. One Early Dynastic, one New Empire, and the rest Christian.
Patch Nos. 100-117: two New Empire graves; the rest Christian.
(p.9) No.71. East bank. Patch 1-2, in mud bank behind village of
Sherfadittogog. New Empire. Patch 100-115, in sand on northern side of
khor at same place. Middle Empire (C-group). Patch 200-250, in mud (?)
on southern side of same khor, archaic.
No.72. West bank. Patch 1-199, in mud bank just south of the Temple of
Gerf Husein. Byzantine (X-group) and Christian. Patch 200-600, in
gravel bank, about 100 metres further south. Middle and New Empire
(C-group).
No.73. West bank. In the first khor, one kilometre south of Gerf Husein
Temple, on a mud bank 100 metres up the northern side of the khor.
Early Dynastic to New Empire, and Ptolemaic-Roman.
No.74. West bank. In mud and sand banks, north and south of the khor at
Gedekol. North of the khor, a Christian cemetery (like Gennari No.55).
South of the khor, graves 1-216, Byzantine (X-group), and Christian.
About 200 metres further south, in mud, grazes 500-530, Middle Empire
(C-group).
No.75. East bank. In mud bank, at Shellub-batha. Byzantine (X-group).
No.76. West bank. In two. alluvial banks, mud and sand, along the
southern side of the khor at Gedekol. The western patch, late
predynastic to Middle Empire (C-group); the eastern patch, Middle
Empire (C-group) and New Empire with some Christian graves (outliers
from Cem. 74).
No.77. West bank. On the edge of a high sandstone plateau south of
Gedekol on both sides of a small khor, about seventy graves of a
primitive race. Northern group 1-35, apparently C-group. Southern group
101-127, Early Dynastic or Old Kingdom (B-group).
No.78. West bank. On a mud mound on the northern side of the mouth of a
small khor at Mediq (4 kilometres south of Gerf Husein Temple).
Completely plundered. Late Predynastic and Early Dynastic.
No.79. West bank. On a mud mound south of the khor of No.78 (at Mediq).
Large cemetery. Middle and Late Predynastic and Early Dynastic.
No.80. West bank. On another knoll of mud, about 60 metres south of No.79. Predynastic and B-group.
Summary of Results (p.10).
The salient points of this season's work, up to the present, are:—
1. The great centre of population between Taifa and Koshtamna is at
Gerf Husein. There are two small centres, one at Wadi Nugdy, and the
other at Sherfadittogog. Otherwise the district between Wadi Nugdy and
Taifa is practically barren of archaic material.
2. Dated graves of the 16th and 17th Dynasties appear for the first
time at Gennari, and confirm the date assigned to the C-group.
3. There is a decided increase in the Byzantine material (our X-group), especially at Gerf Husein.
4. The great destruction of material by the sebakh-digging continues to be observed.
1.—The district between Taifa and Gerf Husein is practically barren of
archaic material—a fact which may be due to several causes. In the
first place, the cultivable strip is very narrow at the best, and
entirely wanting in many places, so that it could not have supported,
in ancient times, any large population. Secondly, there are few banks
of Nile mud available for sebakh, and therefore the available banks and
the decayed stone strata near the river have been thoroughly overhauled
or in some cases entirely carried away by sebbahMn. Consequently, it is
difficult to decide just how far our material is representative.
Finally, there is always a bare possibility that there may be archaic
cemeteries similar to No.77 on the high gebel beyond the legitimate
territory of our survey. This possibility is not, however, to be taken
too seriously, because the high gebel was usually looked over, and any
disturbance of the surface would easily be detected. From Taifa to
Dendur, I think it may be concluded in any case that there was a very
scanty population down to the Koman period—a repetition of the
conditions found in the stretch last year between Wadi Qamar and
Meris—owing to lack of cultivable soil in the archaic period. From
Dendur to Gerf Husein, this late material, Roman, Byzantine and
Christian, continues and increases in amount. The noticeable point in
this latter stretch is, however, the scattered evidences of the Early
Dynastic Period (at Wadi Abyad, Sherfadittogog and Muallaqa, Nos. 65,
71, 68, 70), of the Middle Empire (at Abu Asha, Sherfadittogog,
Muallaqa and Wadi Nugdy, Nos. 63, 71, 68, 69), and of the New Empire
(at Mettardul, Abu Regab, (p.11) Dughesh, Sherfadittogog, Musa-kole,
Muallaqa and Wadi Nugdy, Nos. 64, 66, 67, 71, 68, 69). Thus the two big
khors, Wadi Nugdy and Sherfadittogog, are centres of sparse populations
running from the Early Dynastic nearly to the present day.
On the west bank, from the Temple of Gerf Husein to the sandstone
promontory which separates the district of Gerf Husein from that of
Koshtamna, there is a long series of mud and alluvial banks laid down
behind (north of) the promontory, and cut by a number of khors also
containing alluvial banks. In these banks from the Temple to the
promontory, there are a series of cemeteries numbered 72, 73, 74, 76,
78, 79 and 80, and there is one cemetery, No.77, on the edge of the
high sandstone plateau. In these cemeteries, we have possibly a few
early Predynastic graves at Nos. 79 and 80; Middle and Late
Predynastic, Early Dynastic and Old Kingdom (B-group), at Nos. 79, 80,
76 and 73. Middle Kingdom graves (C-group) occur at Nos. 77, 74, 76 and
73; but the great C-group cemetery is No.72: 200 ff. There are a few
New Empire graves in Cemetery No.72; a few Ptolemaic-Roman graves in
No.73, and in No.74. The X-group (Byzantine) is found at No. 72: 1-199,
and at No.74, while the Christian graves are in evidence in the same
two cemeteries with superstructures as at Gennari. The following table
gives the occurrence of the different periods at the different sites
and shows extremely well the poverty of the archaic material north of
Gerf Husein, and the importance of the site of Gerf Husein
itself:—
TABLE I
Taifa 58 58 55-56
Kalabsha......... 5!l 59
Aqabaten......... 00
Nogi-koleh...... 61
Klior Bazil...... 62 02
Dendur......... 63.' 63 03
Metardul ...... til
Wadi Abyad Go
Abu Hegab...... ... 6ti 00 00
Dugbesb........ 07
Sharfadittogog ... 71 71 71
Muallaqa......... 68 08
Khor Nugdy..... 69 69
Musa-kole ...... 70 70 70
Gerf Husein ...... 80? 76,78,
71t.su.
73,7S,
78.79,
80.
73,70.
70.
73.76.
7'J,80,
72.73,
74.7(1,
77.
72,74,
76.
72,74,
76.
73,88. 72,74, 27,74,
70,79,
(p.12) 2.—At Gennari, in Cemetery No.58, Nos.106, 110, 112, 116-127, we
get, for the first time, a group of graves of an Egyptian type dated
previous to the 18th Dynasty, see Fig. 1. These are the earliest graves
yet found by the Nubian Survey subsequent to the Early Dynastic Period
which present practical identity with Egyptian graves of the same
period. The pottery presents the usual forms of the Middle and New
Empire, but the polished Palestinian jars and similar pots are wanting.
The scarabs show the early scroll forms; two present the name of
Ra-se-wci ad-en and one the name sa-seteny ApopMs. The bodies are,
without exception, buried extended on the side, in all but one case
with the head north or south. Three of these graves, 106, 110 and
112&, are at a little distance in the midst of the adjoining patch
of 13 C-group graves, and 106 cuts into a C-group grave, while 1126 is
over the edge of 112a and 70 centimetres above its floor. The C-group
graves present the usual pottery, grave and burial types of the
C-group. On a second sand knoll, 250 metres to the east, is an unmixed
C-group cemetery of 20 graves. These graves present characteristic
pottery, amulets, grave and burial types. No.16 contained a scarabseal
of the primitive round type with geometrical design, in great contrast
to the scarabs found in the 17th Dynasty graves mentioned above, see
Fig. 1.
The material in this cemetery bears out to the fullest extent the
conclusion of last year that the C-group is in the main previous to the
New Empire. The separation of the two periods is confirmed by the
evidence recorded by Dr. Derry. Prof. Elliot Smith and Dr. Derry report
that these C-group graves, with two exceptions (Nos.18 and 102),
present those peculiar negroid characteristics which may be given the
name Nubian, while the 17th Dynasty group contains both Egyptians (5
cases) and Nubians (7 cases).
The New Empire material further south at Mettardul, Abu Kegab, Dughesh,
Sherfadittogog, Muallaqa, Wadi Nugdy and Musa-kole, is not abundant,
but is constantly recurrent. At Mettardul there are two unmistakeably
early 18th Dynasty graves, one with a scarab of Ahmes I, with C-group
graves near by (Cem. 64). At Abu Kegab there is one early 18th dynasty
grave (one burial), with fragments of C-group pottery in the debris
(Cem. No.66). At Dughesh, there are two 18th dynasty graves (Cem.
No.67).
(p.13)
Figure 1
(p.14). At Sherfadittogog, there were two New Empire tombs (18th
Dynasty), and one C-group grave (p.14) probably only remnants of a
large cemetery (Cem. No.71). At Muallaqa, there were about 30 C-group
and New Empire graves, divided about half and half, and badly plundered
(Cem. No.68). At AVady Nugdy, there was again a mixed cemetery of
C-group and New Empire graves—sharply distinguished in forms, burials
and pottery. Here also, as at Gennari, the New Empire graves were
grouped around the southern edges of the two patches in a manner
indicating that they formed the latest part of the cemetery, and
presented scarabs and pottery of the early 18th Dynasty or earlier
(Cem. No.69). Across the wady from this patch of graves were two
isolated mud-cut chambered tombs, one a communal burial place with five
skeletons (69: 200), both of the 18th Dynasty. At Musa-kole, across the
river from Wady Nugdy, there were three 18th Dynasty graves associated
with Christian (?) extended burials.
It is significant that the early New Empire, in fact the Hyksos period,
marks the return of Egyptian culture and of scattered members of the
Egyptian race to the district. The military expeditions of the Old and
the Middle Empires had passed long ago and left little trace in the
culture of Nubia. The great expeditions of the New Empire had not yet
begun. The explanation must be sought elsewhere, and lies, I think, in
the actual movements of population during the Hyksos period as a result
of political conditions in Egypt. Among the bodies contained in the New
Empire graves are Nubians as well as Egyptians (Prof. Elliot Smith and
Dr. Derry); but none of the graves preserve the pottery or ornaments
characteristic of the great Nubian period just passed.
So far as the communities are concerned which are represented by our
dated New Empire graves, they are a mixed Nubian-Egyptian population
dominated entirely by Egyptian culture. Only the merest survivals of
the Nubian culture occur—not more than seven black-topped pots in the
whole course of the work from Shellal to Gerf Husein. The question
naturally arises as to the relationship in point of time between the
New Empire material and the C-groups. It is, of course, a priori
possible that, during the New Empire and later, certain unmixed Nubian
communities continued the more primitive Nubian culture and are
preserved to us in graves which are not to be distinguished from the
late C-group graves. All that can be said is that none of the material
at present at hand favours that supposition, and the evidence for the
priority in time of C-group in relation to the New Empire is conclusive
for a large part of the C-group material.
(p.15) 3.—Last year at Cemetery 15, a peculiar type of grave (called
Type I of Cemetery 15, and later Type X), was found under such
conditions that it could be dated to the late Roman or very early
Christian period. The grave was a broad pit with a side chamber; the
burial was contracted on the left side, head south; and the pottery was
characteristic and non-Egyptian.
[Figure 2]
This year at Cemeteries 58, 59, 62, 63, 72 and 74, the same
characteristic pottery has been found in graves of the type noted
above, and also in graves of several new types, so that the X-group may
now be divided into the following divisions:—
1. Side chamber-graves with the burials contracted on either side, head
south (three burials head west, one of them extended on back), see Fig.
2.
2. Pit with end-chamber and burial contracted on either side, head
north or west (one intrusive extended burial, head west), see Fig. 3.
3. Short pits (p.16) with sunk chamber in the middle of floor, burial contracted
on either side with the head west (in one case, south).
4. Long pit with sunk chamber in the middle of floor, extended burials
on back with head west (6 cases) or south (3 cases), see Fig. 4. These
graves occur at Nos. 59, 63, 72 and 74, in the immediate proximity of
Christian graves, or mixed with them.
[Figure 3]
Moreover, some of the Christian types show a simple development
of the types Xl and X4, containing extended burials on the back with
the heads west, like type X4. But the Christian graves do not contain
any pottery, and were in several cases clearly later than adjoining
X-group graves. The conclusion of last year as to the date of the
X-group is, therefore, fully borne out. As to actual date, the second
to sixth centuries AD may, I think, be taken as the approximate period
of the X-group.
4.—The denudation (p.17) observed last year continues to be observed
this year also. The excavations made by sebbakhm for dirt in the old
highlevel mud banks is responsible for the complete ruination of many
cemeteries, and possibly the disappearance of a few.
[Figure 4]
One of the most interesting cases was at 74: 500, where grave 5, for
example, lay in a cup of mud 50 centimetres above the floor of the
scbakh excavation around it. Again at No.79, the surface as found was
an intact even surface of drift sand strewn with stones, with the dark
mud bank just showing at one spot. It had manifestly not been touched
for a long time; but underneath, the surface showed distinct marks of
sebakh-digging. On the sand dunes below, is an early Moslem town of the
11th to 14th century, just under the sand. As there is no recent
cultivation anywhere in the neighbourhood, it is probable that the
sebakh-digging in No.79 was the work of the people of this town. In
other words, we have here evidence that this process of sebakh
denudation goes back to the 11th to 14th centuries at least. Evidence
of recent plundering for antiquities is practically wanting this year,
and it is clear that a large part of the Nubian antiquities which have
been sold in Egypt in recent years come from a few places only.
(p.18) The general destruction by travelling bands of dealers has, I
think, been somewhat overestimated. It is certainly, in the districts
between Shellal and Koshtamna, not to be considered in comparison with
the destruction due to se&aM-digging.
At present, the period on which more material is needed is the late
period between the 22nd Dynasty and the Ptolemaic Period. The
archaeological characteristics of the period between the 22nd Dynasty
and the Saite period are not well defined in Egypt itself. It is
therefore not surprising that the period presents difficulties in
Nubia. We have found graves, long narrow pits, mud-cut chambers and
rock-cut chambers, which seem to belong to this period; but there is a
remarkable absence in these graves of the animal-headed Canopic jars,
the ushebtis, and the typical glazed amulets of the Late and the Saitic
Periods. It is to be hoped that the future work of the Survey may yield
a sufficient material of this Late Period to clear up all the
outstanding questions.
In Dr. Maclver's preliminary report of the work of the Coxe Expedition
of the University of Pennyslvania, it is said [2]: "An interesting
feature is that, side by side with this late painted pottery, were
found in undisturbed graves hand-made vessels of black ware with
whitefilled incised ornament that could be passed off anywhere as early
dynastic Egyptian." It is not possible, of course, to judge the
significance of the facts here reported until we have more definite
information in regard to the topographical situation of the cemetery,
the relative position of the graves and the types of graves. It is even
not quite clear" what is meant by "white-filled, black-incised early
dynastic Egyptain pottery." In the excavations of the Nubian Survey,
the latest white-filled black-incised pottery is of the Middle-New
Empire Period, and is easily distinguishable from the earlier pottery
of similar technique.
In view, however, of the tendency to lay weight on the significance of
the proximity of graves, it will not be out of place to sum up the
experience gained by the extensive excavations of the Nubian
Archaeological Survey on this point. First of all, the geographical
conditions in Nubia favour, and in some cases compel, the use of a
single uncultivable knoll through a long period, or the alternate use
and re-use of (p.19) several knolls at different periods.
The cultivable area is often very small, but occupied by a continuous
population, so that we get cemeteries like No.30 where a single knoll
with its slopes may be estimated to have contained something over 200
burials representing the predynastic, Early Dynastic, C-group and New
Empire Periods. At No.72, the C-group, the New Empire, the X-group, the
Christian and the Moslem graves were all side by side, while the Early
Dynastic, the B-group and the Ptolemaic-Roman graves were in equally
close proximity in Cem. 72 near by. A number of other instances may be
mentioned, as follows:—
Cem. No.3. Roman-Ptolemaic and Christian.
Cem. No.7. C-group and modern Moslem.
Cem. No.7. New Empire and ancient Moslem.
Cem. No.9. New Empire and Ptolemaic-Roman.
Cem. No.40. New Empire and Early Dynastic.
Cem. No.79. Predynastic and Christian.
Cem. No.76. Early Dynastic, New Empire, X-group and Christian.
It is quite clear that mere physical proximity is not necessarily a resultof proximity in time.
(2) It is even difficult at times to distinguish which grave is older
when two graves cut into each other, unless both are intact since the
latest burial. But, when examined with care, such cases may yield
decisive evidence. For example, in the case of Cem. 79, grave 46, we
have a circular grave with a body from the hips down, contracted on the
left side, head south. Cutting the southern side of it, with the feet
in the place where the body of the contracted burial ought to be, is a
perfectly intact extended burial on the back, with the head west. There
cannot be the least doubt that the extended burial is the later. On the
other hand, the relative positions of the graves gives no clue to the
length of the intervening period (in this case, not less than 2,000
years).
3) When several homogeneous groups of graves occur in a cemetery, it is
sometimes possible to find a number of cases such as are cited under 2
(above), which will establish conclusively the relative positions of
the groups. Or in the event of there being two groups, one succeeding
another, as continuous burials of the same community, this fact may
become manifest in the relative situation of the two groups.
(p.20) The chronology of the Nubian archaeology cannot, however, be
satisfactorily constructed on such cases alone, but must be considered
as a whole by the classification of types of graves, burials and
funerary accompaniments into homogeneous groups, and by the comparison
of these groups with one another and with the corresponding Egyptian
groups. General conditions, such as underlie the great archaeological
groups, will yield not an isolated fact or two, but recurrent facts
indisputable in their interpretation. In the present case, the
occurrence of white-filled incised pottery in an archaeological group
which appears itself to be perfectly well denned and distinct from all
other known groups, is an interesting and not an altogether surprising
survival; but it does not affect the chronological position of other
archaeological groups.
G. A. Reisner.
Footnotes:
1. Before I was quite certain of the absolute dates of the
material at Shellal No.7. I marked the different groups with the
letters A. B. C. D. E. to show the relative chronological position. To
this was added, later, the X-group.
2. Egypt Exploration Fund. "Archaeological Report," by E. D. Griffith, p. 78.
Continue to Bulletin 4.
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