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In 2002, the news
that an ancient ossuary might be associated with James, the brother of Jesus
of Nazareth, created great excitement in the world of biblical archaeology
as well as among Christians and those of other religious faiths. The ossuary,
or burial box, purportedly had an Aramaic inscription reading "Ya'akov, son
of Yossef, brother of Yeshua," translated as "James, son of Joseph, brother
of Jesus" (see AR 3,3:12). While there was no way of absolutely
proving a connection with the historical Jesus, the juxtaposition of the
three names, and the dating of the Aramaic script, led some to believe that
it was the burial box of James, martyred in AD 62. As such it had a powerful
emotional and religious significance as the earliest reference to the biblical
Jesus.
The limestone ossuary
was in the possession of Oded Golan, a well known Israeli collector of
antiquities. At the time, Golan claimed he had purchased the box many years
ago, and was unaware of its potential value until the inscription was read
by André Lemaire, an expert in ancient scripts. While the news about
the inscription was welcomed with enthusiasm by many, doubts about its
authenticity were raised almost immediately. Over the past two years, various
scientific analyses have been performed on the ossuary, including tests to
determine if the patina over the inscription was consistent with that on
the remainder of the artifact. At the same time, paleographic analysis of
the inscription questioned both the style of lettering and the wording. While
the evidence suggests that the box itself was ancient (probably ca. 1st century
AD), at least part of the inscription is probably a recent fake.
Also, in the past
two years, the same collector and his entire collection have been under intense scrutiny.
Initially, he was held by Israeli authorities for questioning about his role
as a possible forger and receiver of stolen antiquities, but eventually released
without being charged. Then in late December 2004, Israeli police indicted
him along with three other antiquities dealers on charges of running a forgery ring for over twenty years.
Charges also included causing damage to antiquities and receiving fraudulent
goods. The case is of particular interest because the items now declared
to be fakes were once considered some of the most highly valued historical
and religious pieces to be found in Israel.
Other spectacular
artifacts now revealed as forgeries include:
- An ivory pomegranate
(fig.1), once thought to be the top of a temple priest's scepter. Until recently
on display in the Israel Museum, the pomegranate was believed to be the only
known relic from Solomon's temple. This small artifact had an inscription
partly encircling its neck which read "Sacred donation for the priests of
(in) the House of [Yahw]h," identifying it with the Temple. Pomegranates
were ancient symbols of fertility, and a motif known to be used in the Temple
of Solomon (1 Kings 7:21). All of this is now moot, since the pomegranate
has been withdrawn from
view , and the Museum has announced that it is a fake. At the
time of its purchase from an anonymous source in the 1980s, the Museum deposited
$550,000 in a secret Swiss bank account. This subterfuge alone should have
raised suspicions.
- A stone seal
purportedly belonging to Menashe (also known as Manasseh), King of Judah
ca. 687-642 BC. It is reported to have been offered to a private collector
for $1 million. Reference to Menashe's rule (noted for toleration of foreign
gods), and to his captivity in Babylonia can be found in II Chronicles 33:11-13. [Fig.1: Ivory pomegranate, purported to
be from Solomon's temple, declared a fake (Israel
Museum).
- A decorated stone
menorah said to belong to the temple High Priest. This also was offered to
private collectors for a large sum of money.
- The Yoash (or
Jehoash) Inscription. The sandstone tablet, if it had been authentic, would
have been of immeasurable historical value. It supposedly contained instructions
in ancient Hebrew for repairing the First Temple in Jerusalem during the
reign of Yehoash, son of Akhazyah, King of Judah (836-798 BC). Such repairs
were reported in the Old Testament in 2 Kings:12, and the tablet, if genuine,
would have provided non-biblical confirmation of the event.
The tablet, like
the ossuary, was owned by Oded Golan, and like the ossuary, the stone tablet
itself is probably ancient. Carbon-14 analysis undertaken by the Geological
Survey of Israel dates the crust on the stone to 2,300 years ago. This appears
consistent with the stone being an actual relic from the 9th century, which
began corroding at the beginning of the 3rd century. Based on linguistic
analysis, the inscription, however, was considered to be a forgery by most
scholars almost from the start. These included Frank Cross, a distinguished
Biblical archaeologist, now retired (2003), Edward Greenstein of Tel Aviv
University (2003), and Reinhard Lehmann, of Johannes Gutenberg University
(2004). For a different opinion, consult David Freedman (2004).
- Fragments of
clay vessels with inscriptions that supposedly showed a connection to biblical
sites including the Israelite temples.
- A quartz bowl
with an Egyptian inscription describing the destruction of Megiddo by Egyptian
armies. The outcome of this battle is a topic of considerable academic debate,
and any documentation such as the purported bowl would be of great
interest.
In addition to
the large amounts of money that passed hands, and the potential havoc the
forgeries may raise for museum collections, there is a larger question of
religious and political importance. Many religious people and others interested
in documenting Israel's historical claim to Jerusalem have been anxious to
find proof outside the Bible regarding the existence of the First and Second
Temples. To date, only remains of the reconstruction of the Second Temple
that occurred during the reign of Herod The Great (37 BC-4 AD) have been
located. The present impossibility of excavating underneath the Muslim sites
on the Temple Mount prevents more conclusive investigations.
With some Palestinians
claiming right of ownership of the sacred area, and denying that the First
and Second Temples ever existed on the Temple Mount to legitimize their claims,
any archaeological proof of the early temples' existence (such as the pomegranate
and the Jehoash Tablet) must have been welcomed by many Israelis. By replicating
ancient Hebrew letters and producing inscriptions in conformity with Biblical
texts, the forgery ring took advantage of the desire of many people to possess
tangible evidence of biblical accounts for religious and nationalistic
purposes.
References: http://www.mystae.com/reflections/messiah/research/
inscriptions.html; http://www.haaretzdaily.com/hasen/spages/520771.html,
29 Dec. 2004; http://www.orientalisi.net/lehmann.htm, 5 Mar. 2004; Lewitt,
I. (Ed.) 1995. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. New York, Vendome Press; Freedman,
D. 2004. "Don't Rush to Judgment." Biblical Archaeology Review
30:49-51.]
This article appears on pages 15-16 in Vol.4 No.2 of Athena
Review.
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