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Reviewed by Michele A. Miller
 Although Buddhism
is one of the world’s major religions, many westerners have only a vague
recollection of its central ideology and little or no concept of its different
schools (see note 1) or its broad spatial and temporal range. In fact, western
views of Buddhism are largely skewed toward the teachings of Tibetan monks
as influenced by the Dalai Lama’s visits to the west over the last few
decades. The Buddhism Project, a New York City-wide series of exhibitions
and programs has been organized by twenty participating institutions in order
to explore the larger impact of Buddhist thought, particularly on art and
culture in America. As part of this initiative, The World of Buddhism provides
an important historical overview of the religion, from its founding in northern
India in the 6th c. BC to its spread throughout Asia over the successive
centuries. In doing so, this relatively small exhibit of perhaps 50 carefully
chosen, exquisite works illustrates how central Buddhist images evolved as
they moved through time and space.
Fig.1: Statue of Buddha from Pakistan, Gandhara area, Kushan Period.
Late 2nd - early 3rd c. AD. Phyllite. H: 72 in (Asia Society and Museum;
photo: Lynton Gardiner)
Interestingly, while worship and meditation in later Buddhist practice focussed
on a wide pantheon of imagery, the earliest form of the religion, which began
just after Buddha’s death in the 5th-6th c. BC, was a rather austere
philosophy in which the historical Buddha was represented only by symbols.
By the Kushan period in northern India (1st-3rd c. AD), however, Buddha began
to be represented in human form, and soon his depiction, either after
enlightenment or in key scenes of his life on earth, as well as those of
his disciples and other enlightened beings (bodhisattvas) became as important
to Buddhist worship as depictions of Jesus and saints were to early Christianity.
Early texts describe the appropriate depiction of Buddha according to natural
forms, such as eyes in the shape of lotus blossoms, eyebrows like an
archer’s bow, nose like a parrot’s beak and chin like a mango stone.
Other attributes also identify images of Buddha, including elongated earlobes
(symbolizing the heavy earrings Buddha removed when he rejected the rich
life of his family), a small circular mark on the forehead (urea), a distinct
protuberance on top of the head (ushnisha), and usually the simple, ascetic
robes of a monk. One of the most fascinating aspects of the exhibit, however,
is how different images of Buddha incorporated both prior artistic styles
and the traditional ideals of beauty of each culture where the religion
flourished, while also upholding to the most part to an acceptable canon
of facial characteristics and postures.
For instance,
one of the earliest works in the exhibit is a large standing Buddha in stone
from the Gandhara region of Pakistan in the late 2nd to 3rd century (fig.1).
Typical of Gandharan art, the figure assimilates many Hellenistic and Roman
stylistic elements, such as the heavy, linear depiction of drapery folds,
strong, muscular physique and westernized, deep-set facial features including
a long, masculine nose and wavy hair. In sharp contrast to t his are two works
from the Gupta period (ca. 5th-6th c. AD) which reflect the Indic tradition
in which a graceful, sinuous figure is revealed through clinging, delicate
garments. Sculptures from the Sarnath area, a leading Buddhist center in
the Gupta period, were widely distributed and copied in the transmission
of Buddhism further east. Thus we see similar elements, such as the thin,
transparent robe, graceful proportions in a frontal pose, downcast, introspective
eyes and coiffure of tight curls, in a sculpture of Buddha from the Mon period
in Thailand (7th-8th centuries AD; fig.2). Yet the latter sculpture also
incorporates distinctive Mon features, including a more rigid frontal posture,
squared face, broad lips and nose, and prominent joined eyebrows.
Fig.2: Head of Buddha from Thailand in the Mon Style, ca. 8th c.
AD. Limestone; H: 27 in. (Asia Society and Museum; photo: Susumu Wakisasa
.
Similarly, a much later stone head of Buddha, from the Angkor period in Cambodia
(12th-13th c.) retains the essential Buddhist characteristics, but follows
local ideals of beauty such as a slight, full-lipped smile and raised brow-bone.
By the 12th c. in Thailand, Buddha is depicted not in his simple robes but
in the rich dress, including elaborately decorated crown, collar and belt,
of the local Khmer kings. A separate area of the exhibit follows the depiction
of various bodhisattvas, enlightened beings able to escape the cycle of death
and rebirth (samsar) who chose to remain on earth to help others reach
enlightenment. Unlike Buddha himself, the bodhisattvas are usually depicted
in rich garments and jewelry, often with tall hairstyles and head-gear, and
distinctive, identifying attributes (see note 2.) One of the most important
works from the Rockefeller Collection included in this exhibit is the 8th
c. Bodhisattva Maitreya from the Prakon Chat province of northestern Thailand.
Sculpted in bronze with inlays of silver and black stone this charming, sinuous,
multi-armed figure of the “benevolent” bodhisattva was part of
a spectacular group of bronzes unearthed in 1964.
Mounted near-by are two very different bodhisattvas both from the 13th century.
The first is a seated image of Avalokiteshvara from the early Malla period
of Nepal. Cast in gilt copper and richly decorated with inlays of semi- precious
stones the figure seems intended to impress. Yet, despite his heavy headdress
and elaborate arm-bands, Avalokiteshvara’s open, supple posture and
gesture of reassurance (abhaya mubra) welcomes the worshipper. In contrast
is the standing figure of Jizo Bosatsu or Bodhisattva Kshitigarbha from the
short-lived Kamakuna period (1223-1226) of Japan, sculpted from cypress wood
and decorated with gold leaf and paint. Jizo Bosatsu is destined to save
devotees during the coming “age of decay” of Buddhism and before
the coming of Maitreya, and therefore he was usually depicted as a monk with
shaved head. He holds a metal staff in his right hand and the jewel of wisdom
in his left and stands on a large, multi-petaled lotus blossom. In Japan
he was worshipped as a protector of those most at risk - women, ailing children
and travelers - and thus he is often depicted with innocent, child-like
c haracteristics, such as this image’s open, moon-like face and delicate
hands. Also from the Kamakuna period is a late 13th century scroll (fig.3)
showing the Descent of Buddha Amitabha (Amida Raigo).
A special feature of this exhibit is a small, otherwise empty room whose
walls display several varied Buddhist paintings. Similar to their use
in temples and halls of worship, the paintings here are meant not only to
be admired but to serve as an inspiration and focus for quiet meditation.
A large 14th century Tibetan watercolor depicts the female divinity
known as Green Tara (Syama) who served as compassionate guide to help the
devoted toward enlightenment. The Tara (“star” in Sanskrit) is
known by many forms (46 of which appear in this painting) but the central
Green Tara is identified by her distinct posture and by the blue lotuses
she holds in each hand, one opened and one closed. The Shayamuni Buddha sits
to her right while the painting’s patrons are depicted below, making
offerings to the goddess. Noteworthy is the use of rich colors (predominately
red, green, and blue) and the detailed illustration of the figure’s
garments and jewelry in gold.
Fig.3: Descent of Buddha Amitabha (Amida Raigo) Japan, Kamakura Period,
Late 13th c. AD. Ink, color and gold on silk; H: 38 ¾ x W: 16 ½
in. (Asia Society and Museum; photo: Susumu Wakisasa).
A 14th century Japanese scroll depicts the Buddha of Inifinite Light or Great
Buddha (Dainichi Nyorai), the primary deity of the Shingon sect of Japanese
Esoteric Buddhism. Befitting to his central role he is shown with an intricate
halo of vivid, almost psychedelic colors, representing mystical emanations.
At the opposite end of the spectrum is a quiet, monochromatic scroll
from 15th century Japan depicting White Robed Kannon (Dainichi Nyorai), the
Japanese Avalokiteshrara. As here, he is often shown seated on a rocky promontory
above turbulent waters, in allusion to texts which describe Mount Potalaka,
Avalokiteshvara’s home on the southern coast of India. Perhaps created
to adorn the living quarters of a Zen monastery, the work is marked by an
immediacy of tone and serenity of spirit. The voluptuous figure (who, although
originally male in Indian images, became androgynous in China and Japan)
is shown in robes flowing with instantaneous lines evoking calligraphy. At
the same time the large, round moon shining over Kannon’s shoulder reflects
in his round, innocent face, lending the image tranquillity. The painting
invites one to sit down on the rug provided in the center of the room for
a moment of quiet contemplation.
.
Note 1: Influential Schools of Buddhism
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Theravada (Way of Elders): emphasizes Buddha as a historical figure and
individual enlightenment as the goal of his followers. Traditionalist,
conservative.
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Mahayana (Greater Way): promotes salvationist concept of bodhisattvas. Spread
from India throughout Far East to Tibet, Thailand, China, Japan,etc.
-
Tantric or Yakrayana: practitioners utilize specific rituals and special
meditation to achieve enlightenment in a single lifetime
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Chan (Zen in Japanese): teaches that enlightenment is achieved spontaneously
through a combination of meditation and mundane physical work.
Note 2: Popular Bodhisattvas
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Avalokiteshrara: one of the most popular bodhisattvas, the personification
of universal compassion often invoked to help those in need, especially
travelers. His attributes include a lotus held in one hand and a small Buddha
shown seated within his headdress.
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Maitreya: destined to be the next mortal Buddha after Shakyamuni, he is thus
often also depicted in simple, ascetic robes. Other attributes include a
dome or tower-shaped reliquary (stupa) atop his headdress.
-
Manjushri: the embodiment of transcendental wisdom and knowledge needed to
attain enlightenment. His attributes include a sword (used to destroy ignorance)
and a book (symbol of his knowledge and insight)
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This article appears in Vol.3 No.4 of Athena
Review.
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